Tunisia is more than an excellent place to play golf in the winter: on a small surface you can find real deserts with beautiful oasis, old cities, lots of carpets and fine beaches. Combined with the good climate, warm people and good opportunities for a relaxed holiday make Tunisia a popular destination.
One of the more striking features of a visit to Tunisia is that every single city you visit seems really old. Tunisia has been a part of Phoenician, Carthagenian, Byzantic, Roman, Arab, Turkish and French empires and they all left their beautiful traces here. Tunis and Carthage date back to pre-roman times, El jem has its own Coliseum. Kairouan is considered a young city; it was founded in the 6-th century by the Arabs. The coast of Tunisia is beautiful. Towns like Mahdia , Sousse , Sfax, Monastir and Tozeur are worth a visit. The beaches are quite nice. You might try to avoid staying in the big tourist traps on the coast, however, there it is quite hard to appreciate real Tunisian life. The west is rugged mountain land. One of the coolest things to do here is take the 'lezard rouge' in Metlaoui . The lezard is a train from 1920, used in the past by the Bey, that winds its way through mountain gorges. The south of Tunisia is mostly desert. A striking sight in this region are the cave dwellings in Matmata . This is where Star Wars was filmed! The island of Jerba, called dream island, is also a great place to go in the south. As William Shakespeare said it "Sir, This Tunis is Carthage"
David Foulk - Tunisia
We present a selection of photos from young photographer David Foulk's recent visit to Tunisia.
Here, David explains his collection in his own words.
The photographs seen here are part of 40 currently on display at Repton Art School, and were taken as part of a school project during the Christmas holidays 2002-03.
I went around Tunisia for three days with Hamzaui Samir from Sousse's 'Sydicate Initative'.
Samir has been a friend of the family since 1997.
I also undertook a number of day trips with my step father. Places visited included, Douze, Kepili and Matmata, but I was unable to get down to the deep south of the country on this occasion.
My work has been influenced by that of Freya Stark and William Henry Fox Talbot, and I use a Canon EOS300 with a 28 - 80 mm lens for most of my work.
I also occasionally use a 300mm zoom. The photos were shot using Ilford Delta film ASA 100, and for some more dramatic shots (not shown here) I used a red filter.
Tunisia Real Estate: At the Cusp of a Boom?
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Tunisia is beginning to grab headlines as an international tourism destination. Although not yet as well recognized as its North African neighbors Morocco and Egypt, it is fast catching up. TripAdvisor ranked Jerba, Tunisia number one among its top 10 emerging tourism spots for 2008. A New York Times article at the end of last year put the country at third place in its list of 53 countries to visit in 2008.
It is not surprising that this small country of 10 million people is beginning capture the attention of holiday makers. Its sunny weather, beautiful sandy white beaches on an 800-mile Mediterranean coast, historic towns with narrow meandering streets and varied landscape that includes the Atlas Mountains and the Sahara Desert make it an ideal destination. It has something for everyone.
Most tourists stay close to coastal towns such as the capital Tunis and historic SousseTunisia has several international airports that can take most visitors directly to their chosen destinations. The number of tourists, especially those from Europe, has been steadily increasing. The capital city, Tunis, is just a two-hour flight from Paris and London and 45 minutes away from Rome.
Word is also getting out about the tiny country’s real estate sector. Attracted by its stable, albeit autocratic, political and economic policy, major companies have begun investing in developments. Individual foreign buyers are trickling in and snapping up affordable holiday homes in prime locations.
“The country has many beautiful beaches, cultural and historical attractions, combined with days of endless sunshine and hot summers, which help make any investment have the potential of high rental yields, as well as providing an excellent holiday home,” Melanie Benna, owner of the The Tunisian House, a real estate agency that aids foreign residental property investors, said. “Education is excellent and the literacy rate is one of the highest in Africa. Health care is on a par with Europe.” In short, Tunisia is an-up and-coming property market.
A country snapshot
Sandwiched between Algeria and Libya, Tunisia, the northernmost African state, was a French colony until 1956. The country’s official language is Arabic, but many Tunisians speak French also. Roughly 99 percent of Tunisians are Muslims, and Islam is the religion of the state, according to Tunisia.com.
Map data ©2008 Tele Atlas, AND - Terms of Use
Marker Although it is much smaller and has fewer natural resources than its neighbors, according to an October 2007 TIME Magazine article, it has overcome the type of poverty-related problems from which Libya and Algeria suffer. It has revamped its economy by investing in education and instituting policies that are largely business- and trade-oriented.
Tunisia is ranked first in economic competitiveness among African countries and members of its peer group countries in the Arab World in the Global Competitiveness Report prepared by the World Economic Forum. Though the government has made major strides toward good fiscal policies, it still must address issues that hamper the country’s ability to do business efficiently. Some of its top challenges include complex tax regulations and high tax rates, lack of access to financing and a cumbersome bureaucracy.
Tunisia’s economy is 59.3 percent free, above the regional average of 58.7 percent but slightly below the world average of 60.3, according to the 2008 Index of Economic Freedom prepared by The Wall Street Journal and The Heritage Foundation. Its relatively low score is partly a result of its protectionist economic policies that have limited foreign investment.
Since the early 1990s the government has been working to address obstacles to international investment by taking measured steps towards a free-market economy and away from its previous socialist system.
Tunisia’s main economic sectors are tourism, agriculture, energy and mining. The country has benefited significantly from its 1998 trade agreement with the European Union.
In 2007, Tunisia’s economy grew by 6.2 percent, the highest performance in 10 years, according to The Oxford Business Group, a political and economic intelligence publisher. The country’s main source of income, tourism, brought more than 7 million visitors last year. Tunisia is working to raise its profile among international travelers to the level of some other well known North African destinations, such as Egypt.
The Tunisian real estate market
Real estate in Tunisia is a growing market that is beginning to attract international investment. Financiers of big property projects come mainly from Gulf countries such as The United Arab Emirates.
New office buildings are popping up in the capital Tunis, according to TIME Magazine. Multinational companies such as Pfizer, Eriksson and Siemens are moving in and setting up shop. Advertisings for luxury estates priced upwards of million dollars are beginning to be spotted.
A number of massive investments into the sector have also been announced. In 2007, Sama Dubai inaugurated a $14 billion development known as the Century City and Mediterranean Gate, according to ArabianBusiness. The project is a joint venture between Dubai Holding and the Tunisian government. According to Sama’s Century City website, the plans include transforming more than 2,000 acres of land into a satellite city that will house more than 2,500 firms, retail and recreation centers, 14 luxury hotels and residential properties. The project is expected to take 15 years from start to finish.
The iconic blue and white motif at Sidi Bou SaidAnother large scale development is known as Tunis Sport City, a project by Emirati Boukhatir Holding, according to a recent article at Tunisia Online News. This development will see the construction of, among other things, a residential district with an 18-hole golf course, 49 luxury mansions, two residential villages, 10 high rise buildings, a sports complex with outdoor 10,000-seat and indoor 5,000-seat stadiums, Olympic swimming pools and gyms.
Emirati Boukhatir Holding has also plans to develop Tunis Garden Golf, which will be designed with the participation of the PGA.
Notable Gulf property developers such as Damac, Al Maabar and the Gulf Finance House have also taken notice of Tunisia, according to The Oxford Business Group. Both international and local investment in the real estate sector is expected to continue to grow, leading to a tremendous expansion of the market. “I believe the next couple of years will see an explosion of interest in buying in Tunisia,” said Benna. “People have moved on from Morocco, Turkey, and Egypt and are looking for something new. Tunisia provides something just as different and exotic, but more European thinking, more relaxed, and definitely more upper class.”
Purchasing real estate in Tunisia
At first glance, the rules for foreigners purchasing property in Tunisia seem simple: “...a foreigner, including American citizens, can buy any property in Tunisia except agricultural land," said Malek Rejiba, an attorney whose practice, Malek Rejiba & Associates, helps non-citizens navigate the real estate purchasing process in the country.
However, it is a little more complicated than simply jetting to Tunisia, picking out a property and signing documents. According to Mr. Rejiba, it is important to hire a lawyer or an agent to help to distinguish purchasable land from agricultural land before going through the lengthy process of preparing the extensive paperwork needed and applying for authorization to buy the property. He said getting the permission alone may take three to six months and more if there are complications.
The application for authorization of purchase needs to be submitted to the governor of the region in which the property of interest is located before any transaction can be completed. According to Melanie Benna, this procedure helps avoid errors that lead to problems later. Before sending an application for purchase to the governor, all paperwork must be in place and checked by the local council. “If just one paper is missing or the customer is applying to purchase land that has not been designated for building, for example, the council will not approve the application to be forwarded to the governor, therefore making it extremely difficult for costly mistakes to occur,” Benna said. Regardless, the three to six months time it takes to process applications can be discouraging for some investors.
The potential risks and problems associated with investing in Tunisia aren’t all that clear yet; the international property scene in the country is still in its infancy. What is apparent is the real estate market in Tunisia is growing and its future is promising
Written by: Yemisrach Kifle
From Carthage to Modern Tunisia...
Tunisia, a small north African country by geography, but Arab by culture, has a rich cultural, traditional and social heritage, reaching back to the thousands of years ago. There are many cultures and races forming the mosaic of people living in Tunisia today. It is possible to see the people living and working in a hich-tech environment side by side with nomadic people who live in tents and migrate continuously with their herds of camels and sheep from one area to the other all year-long.
There are a number of important civilizations which took place on this land since the antiquity. Initially it started with the Phoenician settlement and colonization. Then Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Ottomans and French assumed the control over the land and its people. By being very successful maritime traders, Phoenicians taught the local Berbers advanced forms of agriculture and urban living. All the other successive civilizations left something behind to make the modern Tunisia today, very interesting and attractive for modern-day travellers.
Tunisia today is an impressive Arab country with a modern infrastructure, a stable government and a strong economy. The government-sponsored health care system is one of the best administered ones among the Arab league countries. There is also a relatively advanced social security system which provides a reasonable life standard for aged, disabled and retired citizens of the country.
The French domination until the full independence in 1956, has contributed heavily to the elegant architecture and advanced town planning of the Tunisian cities. There are many parks, wide boulevards, sidewalk cafes, and an effective public transport system.
The eastern and the western influence on the arts, culture and social life of Tunisian people is very obvious. The attitude of the Tunisian people to foreigners is very friendly. Although the official language is Arabic but French is widely spoken and naturally English is also very common. Tunisia is considered to be the most attractive tourist destination in Africa, ahead of Egypt and Kenya.
There are a number of important civilizations which took place on this land since the antiquity. Initially it started with the Phoenician settlement and colonization. Then Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Ottomans and French assumed the control over the land and its people. By being very successful maritime traders, Phoenicians taught the local Berbers advanced forms of agriculture and urban living. All the other successive civilizations left something behind to make the modern Tunisia today, very interesting and attractive for modern-day travellers.
Tunisia today is an impressive Arab country with a modern infrastructure, a stable government and a strong economy. The government-sponsored health care system is one of the best administered ones among the Arab league countries. There is also a relatively advanced social security system which provides a reasonable life standard for aged, disabled and retired citizens of the country.
The French domination until the full independence in 1956, has contributed heavily to the elegant architecture and advanced town planning of the Tunisian cities. There are many parks, wide boulevards, sidewalk cafes, and an effective public transport system.
The eastern and the western influence on the arts, culture and social life of Tunisian people is very obvious. The attitude of the Tunisian people to foreigners is very friendly. Although the official language is Arabic but French is widely spoken and naturally English is also very common. Tunisia is considered to be the most attractive tourist destination in Africa, ahead of Egypt and Kenya.
TUNISIA
INTRODUCTION
1. Political situation
2. Economy
3. Health & Education
4. Religions & Peoples
INTRODUCTION
Traces of hominids as far back in time as 1 million years. 50,000 years ago Homo Sapiens were dominating in North Africa. 10,000 years ago it is believed that a people now referred to as proto-Hamites arrived, coming from western Asia. This people is believed to have spoken a language close to the language of Ancient Egypt. Around Tunisia, people were living in caves, and survived from hunting and gathering.
Around 2000 BCE: Introduction of metals from Sicily, and with this Tunisia entered the Bronze Age.
1100 BCE: The first arrival of Phoenicians in Tunisia. They founded trading posts, which would aid them in trading in the Mediterranean market, stretching from the Levant to Spain.
814 BCE: Carthage is founded by Phoenician traders. The cultures around Carthage were relatively primitive, and offered little threat to the colonists. The Phoenicians established more trading posts, like Bizerte, Utica and Sousse.
7th century BCE: Arrival of Greek traders, who represented a serious threat to the Phoenicians and their position in the Mediterranean basin. This had as a result that the independent Phoenician cities in Tunisia joined forces, and Carthage became the leader among them.
480 BCE: The Phoencian-Greek battle of Himera in Sicily, which had the Greeks as victors, resulted in Carthage becoming more independent from the Phoenician homeland.
396 BCE: New defeat in Sicily for Carthage, against the Greeks. Carthage was even more weakened by domestic rebellion.
310 BCE: Greek invasion, resulting in 3 years of heavy destruction of a large area that included Carthage.
263 BCE: Start of the Punic Wars, where the still insignificant Rome fought against Carthage.
146 BCE: With the end of the Third Punic War, Carthage is destroyed, and set under Roman control. Gradually a colonization started, and Carthage was rebuilt according to Roman drafts.
112 BCE: With the killing of Romans in Cirta (now Constantine) by Jugurtha, the Romans started to get more involved in Africa.
105 BCE: Jugurtha is defeated, and Roman veterans settle in the region. The colony was named Africa Proconsularis, and included most of today's Tunisia and Tripolitania in today's Libya.
44 BCE: Refounding of Carthage. A time of strong economic growth starts, and northern Africa becomes one of the most stable regions in the Roman Empire. Agriculture with grain and later olive oil, was the main economic base for the region, with exports to Rome making it invaluable for the empire. Northern Africa became more and more important for the political life of Rome as well, with many central figures with their origin in the region. Most of the inhabitants in the Roman cities, were of North African origin. Later, with Christianity, many religious schisms had their origins here as well.
312 CE: The Roman Empire becomes officially Christian, but there is resistance among the North Africans, who have chosen the Donatist direction of Christianity.
439: The Vandals take control over the region, much aided by local Donatist Christians, and for about a century Tunisia was the central region in a kingdom that included today's north-western Libya, northern Algeria, parts of northeastern Morocco, Sardinia, and Corsica. The period of the Vandals brought little cultural achievements and progress, and resulted in heavy destruction of many buildings and artifacts from the Roman centuries.
477: With the death of King Genseric, the decline of the Vandal kingdom starts.
533: The Byzantines conquers the region, and put it under their control. The Byzantine general Belisarius meets little resistance from both the locals and the rulers. The province is known as at this period known as Numidia.
646: Numidia is declared independent from Byzantine, by Prefect Gregory.
647: Arab invaders kill Prefect Gregory at Sbeitla.
670: Kairouan is established as capital of the regional administration. The Arabs were still facing strong resistance from the Berber tribes, which in many cases chose the Khariji Islam, an orientation considered as heretical by the Sunni Muslims.
757: Berber troops conquers Kairouan.
761: The Arabs reconquers Kairouan, and the Berbers are driven to the south of Tunisia, where they establish an independent Berber state.
800: Rise of the Aghlabid dynasty. Ibrahim Ibn Aghlab declares himself governor, and the relative independence of Tunisia was accepted by the Caliph Harunu r-Rashid.
827: Invasion of Sicily, where after the island would remain on Arab hands for about 250 years.
846: Arab raid on Rome.
909: The Aghlabids are replaced by the Fatimids, a dynasty based on Isma'ili Shi'i Islam, when Ubayd allah Sa'id declared himself Mahdi. The Fatimids established Mahdia as their capital. During the Fatimids, there were several attacks on Sunni Islam and its defenders in Tunisia.
914: Fatimid campaign against Egypt starts, led by Obaydallah.
944: Mahdia besieged by Kharijis, led by Abu Yazid.
945: Kairouan besieged by the Kharijis.
947: The Khariji rebellion crushed.
961: Fatimid ruler, Al-Mu'izz, conquers Egypt. From this time on there was a dramatic decline in Fatimid political presence in Tunisia.
977: The Zirid dynasty is established.
984: The Zirids break their allegiance to the Fatimids. The Fatimids, now in Egypt, sent the Banu Hillal tribe into Tunisia. This influx, continuing for decades, involved an immigration of 200,000- 300,000 Berber nomads into North Africa. This influx had strong negative effect on the cultures of North Africa, involving both destruction of urban and rural cultures. The Banu Hillal immigration forced the Zirids to leave cities like Tunis, Sfax, Gabes and Gafsa, and to settle along the coast, with Mahdia as their centre.
1072: The Normans take control over Sicily.
1135: Jerba comes under Norman control.
1148: When Mahdia is conquered, the Normans bring an end to the Zirid dynasty.
1159: Almohads conquers Tunis.
1160: Mahdia comes under Almohad control, and central Tunisia is with this governed from Marrakech.
End of 12th century: Almohads establishes themselves in Tunisia under the leadership of Ibn Ghaniyya.
1207: After establishing control over Tunisia, the Almohads put it under control of the Hafsid family.
1229: The Hafsids declare independence from the Marrakech-stationed Almohads, after the latter rejected the teachings of the Muslim scholar Ibn Tumart.
Middle 13th century: Tunisia enters a golden age of culture and architecture, the capital, Tunis, being in the centre.
1270: A French invastion of Tunisia is averted.
Late 15th century: A large influx of Muslim and Jewish refugees from Spain, bring both knowledge, skills and cultural impulses to Tunisia with an impact that would last until modern times.
Around 1280: After the death of Sultan al-Mustansir (1277), Tunisia divides into small city states.
1370: Tunisia becomes reunited, as the sultan of Bougie, Abu l-Abbas takes control over Tunis and the other city states.
1534: Khayr ed-Din (known in Europe as Barbarossa from his red beard) captures Tunis, but only managed to stay here for a few years, as he eventually became expelled by the Spanish.
1574: Tunisia is conquered by the Ottoman Turks, who controls Tunisia through local rulers, known as dey.
1705: As Husayn ibn Ali takes power in Tunisia, the title of the ruler changes from dey to bey. His rule brings prosperity and more autonomy from the Ottomans.
1801: USA starts its actions against the organized piracy staged from Tunisia. They attacked by corsary bases, including Tunis.
1815: End of US actions against Tunisia, following the seize of piracy.
1878: At the congress of Berlin, Britain and France decides to divide their interests: Britain can claim Cyprus, and France Tunisia.
1881 May 12: The Bardo Treaty is signed, where Tunisia becomes a French protectorate.
1883: Convention of Marsa, which includes more details to how Tunisia is to be governed.
1884: The French resident-general becomes the actual ruler of Tunisia, at the cost of the bey.
1920: Several nationalist groups formed the Destour Party, which called for extensive democratic reforms of Tunisia.
1925: The Destour Party is disbanded by the French authorities.
1934: The Neo-Destour Party is formed by Habib Bourguiba.
1942 November: The Germans land troops in Tunisia, in order to resist the Allied forces which at first have established themselves in Algeria and Morocco.
1943 May 12: The Germans capitulate against the Allied forces.
— May 15: Control over Tunisia is transferred to the Free French. The French arrested hundreds of Tunisians who were accused of having cooperated with the Tunisians, as well as deposing the bey.
1946: Tunisia gets the status of being a semi-autonomous associated state in the French Union.
1947 August: The French appoints a ministry that is dominated by Tunisian officials.
1949 September: After having been forced into exile in 1945, Bourguiba can return to Tunisia to promote his ideology of Tunisian independence.
1952: Tunisian ministers try to make the UN Security Council to rule against French rule over Tunisia, but the UN regards the situation in Tunisia as a domestic political question.
1954: In an attempt to curb riots and political demonstrations, the French introduces limited reforms that favours the Tunisians.
— August: French premier minister Pierre Mendès-France promises full internal autonomy under the rule of Tunisians.
1955 June 3: A series of conventions and protocols are signed by Tunisian premier minister Tahar ibn Ammar and French premier minister Edgar Faure. These gave Tunisia a high degree of self-rule.
— September 17: A government with only Tunisian members is installed.
1956 March 20: More independence is given to Tunisia with a new protocol signed in Paris. With this protocol the Bardo Treaty of 1881 is abrogated, and Tunisia is consequently an independent nation.
— March 25: National legislative elections, which gave the Neo-Destour Party a decisive victory.
— April 8: Bourguiba is elected president of the first Tunisian National Assembly.
— April 11: Bourguiba is elected premier minister.
— November 12: Tunisia is admitted to the UN:
1957 May 5: The Neo-Destour Party gets 90% of the votes in several municipal elections. For the first time, women were allowed to vote in these.
— July 25: Tunisia becomes a republic, as the National Assembly deposes the bey. Habib Bourguiba becomes the new republic's first president.
— Second half of the year: There are several clashes between French and Tunisian troops along the Tunisian-Algerian border. French troops are accused of crossing into Tunisia.
1958 February 7: French planes cross into Tunisia, and are shot at by Tunisian artillery.
— February 8: French military planes bombs the Tunisian village of Sekiet Sidi Youssef, where 68 persons are killed.
— October: Tunisia joins the Arab League on the 1., but breaks all diplomatic relations with Egypt on the 15. Tunisia leaves the league in November.
1959 June 1: A new constitution is promulgated.
— November 8: Elections where Bourguiba is elected president, without any opposing candidates. The Neo-Destour Party wins all seats in the parliament. Few in the national opposition and in the outside world regarded these elections to have been fair and free.
1961 July 19: After that Tunisia has demanded that France leave their naval base at Bizerte, their troops siege the base. France responded, and fights broke out. Within 2 days 1,300 Tunisians are killed.
1963: Border disputes with Algeria are settled.
— October: France withdraws completely from Bizerte, following long discussions between the two countries.
1964 May: About 3,000 km² of foreign owned lands are expropriated by the National Assembly. This mainly affected French families, and France responded by stopping all financial assistance to Tunisia.
— Tunisian politics shift more in a socialist direction. This is reflected in the name change of the Neo-Destour Party into Destour Socialist Party.
1975: Bourguiba is appointed president for life by the National Assembly.
1985: Libya expels 30,000 Tunisian workers, something that severed the relations between the two countries.
1987 November 7: In a coup Bourguiba is removed as president, and replaced by his fresh prime minister Zine el Abidine Ben Ali.
1998: An agreement with the European Union brings Tunisia into a close cooperation with Europe in economy and security.
1999 October 24: Presidential elections, where President Ben Ali has allowed to contesting candidates to run. According to the official figures, Ben Ali receives 99.44% of the votes, the two others sharing the remainder between them. Same-day parliamentary elections give the ruling RDC 91.6% of the votes and all contested seats. Of a total 182 seats, the opposition receives by law 34 seats. MDS gets 13 seats, UDU 7, PUP 7, MR-Ettajdid 5 and Parti social libéral 2.
2002 May: Changes in the constitution allows a president to stay in power until the age of 75 (70 before) and be reelected unlimited times (3 times before, Ben Ali had at this time been reelected the three times).
2004 October 24: Ben Ali is reelected president, receiving 94.5% of the votes. Mohamed Bouchiha gets 3.8%, Mohamed Ali Halouani 1%.
1. Political situation
Tunisia is perhaps the most stable country in Africa. Even if the political leadership have promised reforms, Tunisia has not yet reached further than becoming a semi-democracy. There are some political parties, but these always have to be sanctioned by the government. Tunisia has a fair amount of freedom of speech.
In the middle of the 1980s Islamism was far stronger in Tunisia than in neighbouring Algeria. The period 1986-1992 was dominated by the governments fight against the country's not very violent Islamists, still it may be argued that their low level of violence was a result of successful action from the government. Even today, it is most likely that the Islamists are still working undercover. What makes Islamism weak, and not a true factor in the future, is the fact that very few Tunisians feel provoked by Ben Ali's politics.
There is an official process leading towards democracy, but the pace has been slow, and there is good reason to believe that Ben Ali is not planning normal democracy and freedom of speech as something coming up within the next few years.
In November 2001, a process many believe will lead to necessary constitutional changes allowing Ben Ali to be president for life, was begun. In 2002 the maximum age for a president was raised from 70 to 75 years, and a removal of the restriction as to how many times a president can be reelected.
Tunisian censorship is still very much in action, and recent years has seen heavy media control, especially with critical web sites. Several of these have been blocked for Tunisian web surfers.
Human rights activists, some political dissidents, but mainly central Islamists remain in prison. Tunisian has an estimated 500 political prisoners (Human Rights Watch, July 2004).
TUNISIAN BEYS
Hussein 1 1705-1735
Ali 1 1735-1757
Muhammed 1 1757-1759
Ali 2 1759-1782
Hammuda 1782-1814
Mahmud 1814-1824
Hussein 2 1824-1835
Mustafa 1 1835-1837
Ahmed 1 1837-1855
Muhammed 2 1855-1859
Muhammed 3 1859-1882
Ali 3 1882-1902
Muhammed 4 1902-1906
Muhammed 5 1906-1922
Muhammed 6 1922-1929
Ahmed 2 1929-1942
Muhammed 7 1942-1943
Muhammed 8 1943-1957
TUNISIAN PRESIDENTS
Habib Bourguiba 1957-1987
Zine el Abidine Ben Ali 1987-
2. Economy
Tunisia is probably North Africa's most promising country. And even if the population exhibits high professional skills, Tunisia still has low wages.
Through the 1990's Tunisia has had a very positive economic growth, even if low precipitation has reduced the growth some years. Tunisia benefits much from good econmical relations with both Europe and the Arab world. Tunisians working abroad contribute with approximately US$900 million (1998 figures), or about 5% of GNP.
3. Health & Education
Tunisia has a relatively well developed health care system, even if there has been a clear need for all the private clinics which have been established in the larger cities.
The educational system is well established all over the country, and the teaching is based upon French standards. Higher education is fairly well developed, and the system has become more oriented towards competition between students than before.
4. Religions & Peoples
Islam is the totally dominant religion in Tunisia, and the second largest group in the country are atheists, of which Tunisia probably has the largest group among any North African country (but not more than 3%). Virtually all Muslims are Sunni. There are tiny communities of Christians in the largest cities, these are often descendants of Europeans settling here during the protectorate period. On the island Jerba there are some small communities of Jews, who live peacefully with their Muslim neighbours.
Tunsia's population is the result of much migration, occupation and intermarriages. There were many indigenous peoples here some thousand years ago, but Phoenician, Roman, Vandal and Arab conquests have added to the diversity of the population. However today, more than 90% of Tunisians define themselves as Arabs, even if the amount of Arab blood most likely is well under 10%. Their Arab identity is connected to the Arabic language. One of the immigrations is still very important to its descendants: the Banu Hillal, a large tribe that looted the country in the 11th century, before they settled in their own villages.
The other group of some importance are the Berbers, living in small communities in the south. Their number is decreasing, as more and more of them move into modern villages and cities, start to speak Arabic language, throw away their Berber clothes and adopt Arab culture and identity.
The distribution between languages is totally dominated by the local variant of Arabic, generally referred to as Tunisian Arabic. The two other spoken languages are: Jerbi, a Berber language, with about 20,000, mainly living in smaller villages in the south; French, with about 10,000, mainly living in larger cities, especially Tunis.
1. Political situation
2. Economy
3. Health & Education
4. Religions & Peoples
INTRODUCTION
Traces of hominids as far back in time as 1 million years. 50,000 years ago Homo Sapiens were dominating in North Africa. 10,000 years ago it is believed that a people now referred to as proto-Hamites arrived, coming from western Asia. This people is believed to have spoken a language close to the language of Ancient Egypt. Around Tunisia, people were living in caves, and survived from hunting and gathering.
Around 2000 BCE: Introduction of metals from Sicily, and with this Tunisia entered the Bronze Age.
1100 BCE: The first arrival of Phoenicians in Tunisia. They founded trading posts, which would aid them in trading in the Mediterranean market, stretching from the Levant to Spain.
814 BCE: Carthage is founded by Phoenician traders. The cultures around Carthage were relatively primitive, and offered little threat to the colonists. The Phoenicians established more trading posts, like Bizerte, Utica and Sousse.
7th century BCE: Arrival of Greek traders, who represented a serious threat to the Phoenicians and their position in the Mediterranean basin. This had as a result that the independent Phoenician cities in Tunisia joined forces, and Carthage became the leader among them.
480 BCE: The Phoencian-Greek battle of Himera in Sicily, which had the Greeks as victors, resulted in Carthage becoming more independent from the Phoenician homeland.
396 BCE: New defeat in Sicily for Carthage, against the Greeks. Carthage was even more weakened by domestic rebellion.
310 BCE: Greek invasion, resulting in 3 years of heavy destruction of a large area that included Carthage.
263 BCE: Start of the Punic Wars, where the still insignificant Rome fought against Carthage.
146 BCE: With the end of the Third Punic War, Carthage is destroyed, and set under Roman control. Gradually a colonization started, and Carthage was rebuilt according to Roman drafts.
112 BCE: With the killing of Romans in Cirta (now Constantine) by Jugurtha, the Romans started to get more involved in Africa.
105 BCE: Jugurtha is defeated, and Roman veterans settle in the region. The colony was named Africa Proconsularis, and included most of today's Tunisia and Tripolitania in today's Libya.
44 BCE: Refounding of Carthage. A time of strong economic growth starts, and northern Africa becomes one of the most stable regions in the Roman Empire. Agriculture with grain and later olive oil, was the main economic base for the region, with exports to Rome making it invaluable for the empire. Northern Africa became more and more important for the political life of Rome as well, with many central figures with their origin in the region. Most of the inhabitants in the Roman cities, were of North African origin. Later, with Christianity, many religious schisms had their origins here as well.
312 CE: The Roman Empire becomes officially Christian, but there is resistance among the North Africans, who have chosen the Donatist direction of Christianity.
439: The Vandals take control over the region, much aided by local Donatist Christians, and for about a century Tunisia was the central region in a kingdom that included today's north-western Libya, northern Algeria, parts of northeastern Morocco, Sardinia, and Corsica. The period of the Vandals brought little cultural achievements and progress, and resulted in heavy destruction of many buildings and artifacts from the Roman centuries.
477: With the death of King Genseric, the decline of the Vandal kingdom starts.
533: The Byzantines conquers the region, and put it under their control. The Byzantine general Belisarius meets little resistance from both the locals and the rulers. The province is known as at this period known as Numidia.
646: Numidia is declared independent from Byzantine, by Prefect Gregory.
647: Arab invaders kill Prefect Gregory at Sbeitla.
670: Kairouan is established as capital of the regional administration. The Arabs were still facing strong resistance from the Berber tribes, which in many cases chose the Khariji Islam, an orientation considered as heretical by the Sunni Muslims.
757: Berber troops conquers Kairouan.
761: The Arabs reconquers Kairouan, and the Berbers are driven to the south of Tunisia, where they establish an independent Berber state.
800: Rise of the Aghlabid dynasty. Ibrahim Ibn Aghlab declares himself governor, and the relative independence of Tunisia was accepted by the Caliph Harunu r-Rashid.
827: Invasion of Sicily, where after the island would remain on Arab hands for about 250 years.
846: Arab raid on Rome.
909: The Aghlabids are replaced by the Fatimids, a dynasty based on Isma'ili Shi'i Islam, when Ubayd allah Sa'id declared himself Mahdi. The Fatimids established Mahdia as their capital. During the Fatimids, there were several attacks on Sunni Islam and its defenders in Tunisia.
914: Fatimid campaign against Egypt starts, led by Obaydallah.
944: Mahdia besieged by Kharijis, led by Abu Yazid.
945: Kairouan besieged by the Kharijis.
947: The Khariji rebellion crushed.
961: Fatimid ruler, Al-Mu'izz, conquers Egypt. From this time on there was a dramatic decline in Fatimid political presence in Tunisia.
977: The Zirid dynasty is established.
984: The Zirids break their allegiance to the Fatimids. The Fatimids, now in Egypt, sent the Banu Hillal tribe into Tunisia. This influx, continuing for decades, involved an immigration of 200,000- 300,000 Berber nomads into North Africa. This influx had strong negative effect on the cultures of North Africa, involving both destruction of urban and rural cultures. The Banu Hillal immigration forced the Zirids to leave cities like Tunis, Sfax, Gabes and Gafsa, and to settle along the coast, with Mahdia as their centre.
1072: The Normans take control over Sicily.
1135: Jerba comes under Norman control.
1148: When Mahdia is conquered, the Normans bring an end to the Zirid dynasty.
1159: Almohads conquers Tunis.
1160: Mahdia comes under Almohad control, and central Tunisia is with this governed from Marrakech.
End of 12th century: Almohads establishes themselves in Tunisia under the leadership of Ibn Ghaniyya.
1207: After establishing control over Tunisia, the Almohads put it under control of the Hafsid family.
1229: The Hafsids declare independence from the Marrakech-stationed Almohads, after the latter rejected the teachings of the Muslim scholar Ibn Tumart.
Middle 13th century: Tunisia enters a golden age of culture and architecture, the capital, Tunis, being in the centre.
1270: A French invastion of Tunisia is averted.
Late 15th century: A large influx of Muslim and Jewish refugees from Spain, bring both knowledge, skills and cultural impulses to Tunisia with an impact that would last until modern times.
Around 1280: After the death of Sultan al-Mustansir (1277), Tunisia divides into small city states.
1370: Tunisia becomes reunited, as the sultan of Bougie, Abu l-Abbas takes control over Tunis and the other city states.
1534: Khayr ed-Din (known in Europe as Barbarossa from his red beard) captures Tunis, but only managed to stay here for a few years, as he eventually became expelled by the Spanish.
1574: Tunisia is conquered by the Ottoman Turks, who controls Tunisia through local rulers, known as dey.
1705: As Husayn ibn Ali takes power in Tunisia, the title of the ruler changes from dey to bey. His rule brings prosperity and more autonomy from the Ottomans.
1801: USA starts its actions against the organized piracy staged from Tunisia. They attacked by corsary bases, including Tunis.
1815: End of US actions against Tunisia, following the seize of piracy.
1878: At the congress of Berlin, Britain and France decides to divide their interests: Britain can claim Cyprus, and France Tunisia.
1881 May 12: The Bardo Treaty is signed, where Tunisia becomes a French protectorate.
1883: Convention of Marsa, which includes more details to how Tunisia is to be governed.
1884: The French resident-general becomes the actual ruler of Tunisia, at the cost of the bey.
1920: Several nationalist groups formed the Destour Party, which called for extensive democratic reforms of Tunisia.
1925: The Destour Party is disbanded by the French authorities.
1934: The Neo-Destour Party is formed by Habib Bourguiba.
1942 November: The Germans land troops in Tunisia, in order to resist the Allied forces which at first have established themselves in Algeria and Morocco.
1943 May 12: The Germans capitulate against the Allied forces.
— May 15: Control over Tunisia is transferred to the Free French. The French arrested hundreds of Tunisians who were accused of having cooperated with the Tunisians, as well as deposing the bey.
1946: Tunisia gets the status of being a semi-autonomous associated state in the French Union.
1947 August: The French appoints a ministry that is dominated by Tunisian officials.
1949 September: After having been forced into exile in 1945, Bourguiba can return to Tunisia to promote his ideology of Tunisian independence.
1952: Tunisian ministers try to make the UN Security Council to rule against French rule over Tunisia, but the UN regards the situation in Tunisia as a domestic political question.
1954: In an attempt to curb riots and political demonstrations, the French introduces limited reforms that favours the Tunisians.
— August: French premier minister Pierre Mendès-France promises full internal autonomy under the rule of Tunisians.
1955 June 3: A series of conventions and protocols are signed by Tunisian premier minister Tahar ibn Ammar and French premier minister Edgar Faure. These gave Tunisia a high degree of self-rule.
— September 17: A government with only Tunisian members is installed.
1956 March 20: More independence is given to Tunisia with a new protocol signed in Paris. With this protocol the Bardo Treaty of 1881 is abrogated, and Tunisia is consequently an independent nation.
— March 25: National legislative elections, which gave the Neo-Destour Party a decisive victory.
— April 8: Bourguiba is elected president of the first Tunisian National Assembly.
— April 11: Bourguiba is elected premier minister.
— November 12: Tunisia is admitted to the UN:
1957 May 5: The Neo-Destour Party gets 90% of the votes in several municipal elections. For the first time, women were allowed to vote in these.
— July 25: Tunisia becomes a republic, as the National Assembly deposes the bey. Habib Bourguiba becomes the new republic's first president.
— Second half of the year: There are several clashes between French and Tunisian troops along the Tunisian-Algerian border. French troops are accused of crossing into Tunisia.
1958 February 7: French planes cross into Tunisia, and are shot at by Tunisian artillery.
— February 8: French military planes bombs the Tunisian village of Sekiet Sidi Youssef, where 68 persons are killed.
— October: Tunisia joins the Arab League on the 1., but breaks all diplomatic relations with Egypt on the 15. Tunisia leaves the league in November.
1959 June 1: A new constitution is promulgated.
— November 8: Elections where Bourguiba is elected president, without any opposing candidates. The Neo-Destour Party wins all seats in the parliament. Few in the national opposition and in the outside world regarded these elections to have been fair and free.
1961 July 19: After that Tunisia has demanded that France leave their naval base at Bizerte, their troops siege the base. France responded, and fights broke out. Within 2 days 1,300 Tunisians are killed.
1963: Border disputes with Algeria are settled.
— October: France withdraws completely from Bizerte, following long discussions between the two countries.
1964 May: About 3,000 km² of foreign owned lands are expropriated by the National Assembly. This mainly affected French families, and France responded by stopping all financial assistance to Tunisia.
— Tunisian politics shift more in a socialist direction. This is reflected in the name change of the Neo-Destour Party into Destour Socialist Party.
1975: Bourguiba is appointed president for life by the National Assembly.
1985: Libya expels 30,000 Tunisian workers, something that severed the relations between the two countries.
1987 November 7: In a coup Bourguiba is removed as president, and replaced by his fresh prime minister Zine el Abidine Ben Ali.
1998: An agreement with the European Union brings Tunisia into a close cooperation with Europe in economy and security.
1999 October 24: Presidential elections, where President Ben Ali has allowed to contesting candidates to run. According to the official figures, Ben Ali receives 99.44% of the votes, the two others sharing the remainder between them. Same-day parliamentary elections give the ruling RDC 91.6% of the votes and all contested seats. Of a total 182 seats, the opposition receives by law 34 seats. MDS gets 13 seats, UDU 7, PUP 7, MR-Ettajdid 5 and Parti social libéral 2.
2002 May: Changes in the constitution allows a president to stay in power until the age of 75 (70 before) and be reelected unlimited times (3 times before, Ben Ali had at this time been reelected the three times).
2004 October 24: Ben Ali is reelected president, receiving 94.5% of the votes. Mohamed Bouchiha gets 3.8%, Mohamed Ali Halouani 1%.
1. Political situation
Tunisia is perhaps the most stable country in Africa. Even if the political leadership have promised reforms, Tunisia has not yet reached further than becoming a semi-democracy. There are some political parties, but these always have to be sanctioned by the government. Tunisia has a fair amount of freedom of speech.
In the middle of the 1980s Islamism was far stronger in Tunisia than in neighbouring Algeria. The period 1986-1992 was dominated by the governments fight against the country's not very violent Islamists, still it may be argued that their low level of violence was a result of successful action from the government. Even today, it is most likely that the Islamists are still working undercover. What makes Islamism weak, and not a true factor in the future, is the fact that very few Tunisians feel provoked by Ben Ali's politics.
There is an official process leading towards democracy, but the pace has been slow, and there is good reason to believe that Ben Ali is not planning normal democracy and freedom of speech as something coming up within the next few years.
In November 2001, a process many believe will lead to necessary constitutional changes allowing Ben Ali to be president for life, was begun. In 2002 the maximum age for a president was raised from 70 to 75 years, and a removal of the restriction as to how many times a president can be reelected.
Tunisian censorship is still very much in action, and recent years has seen heavy media control, especially with critical web sites. Several of these have been blocked for Tunisian web surfers.
Human rights activists, some political dissidents, but mainly central Islamists remain in prison. Tunisian has an estimated 500 political prisoners (Human Rights Watch, July 2004).
TUNISIAN BEYS
Hussein 1 1705-1735
Ali 1 1735-1757
Muhammed 1 1757-1759
Ali 2 1759-1782
Hammuda 1782-1814
Mahmud 1814-1824
Hussein 2 1824-1835
Mustafa 1 1835-1837
Ahmed 1 1837-1855
Muhammed 2 1855-1859
Muhammed 3 1859-1882
Ali 3 1882-1902
Muhammed 4 1902-1906
Muhammed 5 1906-1922
Muhammed 6 1922-1929
Ahmed 2 1929-1942
Muhammed 7 1942-1943
Muhammed 8 1943-1957
TUNISIAN PRESIDENTS
Habib Bourguiba 1957-1987
Zine el Abidine Ben Ali 1987-
2. Economy
Tunisia is probably North Africa's most promising country. And even if the population exhibits high professional skills, Tunisia still has low wages.
Through the 1990's Tunisia has had a very positive economic growth, even if low precipitation has reduced the growth some years. Tunisia benefits much from good econmical relations with both Europe and the Arab world. Tunisians working abroad contribute with approximately US$900 million (1998 figures), or about 5% of GNP.
3. Health & Education
Tunisia has a relatively well developed health care system, even if there has been a clear need for all the private clinics which have been established in the larger cities.
The educational system is well established all over the country, and the teaching is based upon French standards. Higher education is fairly well developed, and the system has become more oriented towards competition between students than before.
4. Religions & Peoples
Islam is the totally dominant religion in Tunisia, and the second largest group in the country are atheists, of which Tunisia probably has the largest group among any North African country (but not more than 3%). Virtually all Muslims are Sunni. There are tiny communities of Christians in the largest cities, these are often descendants of Europeans settling here during the protectorate period. On the island Jerba there are some small communities of Jews, who live peacefully with their Muslim neighbours.
Tunsia's population is the result of much migration, occupation and intermarriages. There were many indigenous peoples here some thousand years ago, but Phoenician, Roman, Vandal and Arab conquests have added to the diversity of the population. However today, more than 90% of Tunisians define themselves as Arabs, even if the amount of Arab blood most likely is well under 10%. Their Arab identity is connected to the Arabic language. One of the immigrations is still very important to its descendants: the Banu Hillal, a large tribe that looted the country in the 11th century, before they settled in their own villages.
The other group of some importance are the Berbers, living in small communities in the south. Their number is decreasing, as more and more of them move into modern villages and cities, start to speak Arabic language, throw away their Berber clothes and adopt Arab culture and identity.
The distribution between languages is totally dominated by the local variant of Arabic, generally referred to as Tunisian Arabic. The two other spoken languages are: Jerbi, a Berber language, with about 20,000, mainly living in smaller villages in the south; French, with about 10,000, mainly living in larger cities, especially Tunis.
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